Ο τρόμος του κενού





Ο Μαρκ Ρέιβενχιλ είναι ένας συγγραφέας που μπορεί να μη μασάει τα λόγια του, μπορεί να σοκάρει με τις αμοραλιστικές του απόψεις, όμως το Σύστημα έχει δείξει ότι ξέρει πολύ καλά να απορροφά τους όποιους επιφανειακούς κραδασμούς προκαλούν οι αιρετικές του θέσεις.
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Charles Mee's Intertextual and Intercultural Inscriptions: The Suppliants Vs Big Love*






Life  [... ] is an experience we share with others
Charles Mee, Big Love

I: Despite (or because of) the political, technological and other radical changes in our postmodern times, theatre artists from all over the world still turn to the Greek classics, perhaps more frequently than any of their predecessors, with a variety of motives.[1]  Some are attracted by the material or the character of the original which in many cases has led to a new version, a self-standing work. Others are tempted by the possibilities of restoring the original vision and effect of a play which they deem to have become obscured or distorted (Innes  248, 249).
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The Idea of Mediation in Handke's Kaspar




I: How is the self to be defined? How does it interact with the world? These questions certainly "bear no gifts to Athens." They have been central to world drama since the time of Aeschylus. Starting with the hypothesis that characters are coherent subjects, psychologically grounded in perceptual reality, playwrights throughout the ages have repeatedly tried to elaborate a system of stable oppositions (self/other, slave/master, inside/outside, I/you, signifier/signified)  to theatricalize the plight of their characters vis-a-vis culture and its institutions, to create the illusion that theatre is composed of spontaneous speech. It is a "form of writing," as critic Elinor Fuchs compellingly argues in one of her recent essays, "that paradoxically seems to assert the claim of speech to be a direct conduit of Being" (172).
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Re-membered pain in John Jesurun’s Philoktetes




What I cannot see, I can touch.
What I cannot touch, I can see.
What I cannot see, I can imagine.
What I can imagine is mine to keep. What I cannot imagine is not mine
John Jesurun, Philoktetes


Even in the midst of other people, everybody's locked inside his own world
John Jesurun

We know that in standard theatre, language is used to advance plot, create character, provide exposition and resolve tensions. In short, language "embodies an attitude towards explanation and truth that is not untypical of attitudes we frequently bring to bear on our own lives" (Quigley 1985: 223). This is not the case, however,
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Heterotopias of Blackness: The (Im)possibilities of the (Black) Female Self





Each day I wonder with what or with whom can I co-exist in a true union.
Adrienne Kennedy, A Movie Star Has to Star in Black and White.



It is always right

to name the place you move in.

to name...these people now.
wherever you are
they come upon you like an image. 
Jay Wright, “The Master of Names”

Black American culture is a very fragmented thing. We’re all trying to come up with some definition of what we are. My absolute definition of me is the schizophrenia, the contradiction.
 George Wolfe (1986).

I:  Heterotopias, for Michel Foucault, are “real places—places that do exist and that are formed in the very founding of society which are something like counter-sites, a kind of effectively enacted utopia in which the real sites, all the other real sites that can be found within the culture, are simultaneously represented, contested, and inverted.”
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Power Games in Shepard's Prison-House of Language: A Lie of the Mind




Sam Shepard is undoubtedly the most prolific and discussed playwright to appear in the American theatre since Edward Albee. Young as he is, Shepard has proven all these twenty five years that he is a perceptive and investigative mind, capable of translating his “American experience” into effective drama. This is not to say, however, that there is consensus over the quality of his oeuvre. Voices of discontent are also heard. Some critics, for example  lament his departure from the style of his earlier, more daring plays, towards the direction of more conservative , mainstream plays with a very narrow focus of interest  that lacks in “a strong social reference point” (Marranca 1981: 109).

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The Revival of Ancient Greek Drama and the Rage of Greek Critics


I"I do not think there is any other country in the world," Thodoros Kritikos, the university professor and drama reviewer, has recently pointed out, " that honors the classics with so many and also such miserable productions as [Greece]. ...In our country the daily and friendly communion with the leading writers of ...theatre has familiarized us so much with them that we call them by their first name and pat them on the back" (Kritikos 16.4.1987: 152).  Kritikos obviously exaggerates.  Yet his comments, with their characteristic spleen, provide a direct entry into the concerns of this paper. 
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Unhomelike but not homeless: Inter-national thoughts about theatre reviewing


Nationalism is not overcome through mere internationalism; it is rather expanded and elevated thereby into a system.
Martin Heiddegger

For the past several years I have been teaching  a course on theatre criticism and reviewing to undergraduate students. The following comments are largely the result of that experience and, of course, they are not intended as a system of criticizing that will replace other approaches, but a a kind of tool that could illuminate some of the darker matters in the field at a time when habits of thought, feelings, expectations, aesthetics, levels of tolerance and ideologies have dramatically changed to a point beyond recognition

Writing and the terror of ghosts
I would like to start this paper by quoting Thomas Docherty’s opening lines in his interesting book Alterities. Modern criticism, Docherty notes, is an act of writing “conditioned by terror. It begins from an anxiety about its object (be that a text or any other artefact whose source is independent of—other than-- the critic); and its response to such a fear of Otherness, of the object-as-such, is the production of a subject of consciousness characterized firstly by a presumed understanding and consequent appropriation of objects, and subsequently by mastery over or control of its ostensibly recalcitrant Others” (1996: 1). Whatever the critic’s approach is (be it formalist, Marxist, psychoanalytic, feminist etc), it is but an instance of his/her sometimes desperate tactics deployed to validate the subject of his discourse, very often at the cost of the radical otherness (alterity) of the object  (Docherty 1996: 1). To put the case in more theatrical terms: criticism, in the form of reviewing, is the chasing of Hamlet’s ghost, a kind of search doomed to ask the same questions over and over again: What is there? Who is out there? Why is there? The reviewer hardly has time to realise what is going on, and another ghost appears, and then another and another, casting their shadow upon his/her, our lives. No matter what we do, Horatio’s question --“What, has this thing appeared again tonight?”-- will keep coming back, spilling the target upon the ground. Seeming, seeming, seeming, Blau says. A real Catch 22 situation, no doubt; for if the ghost doesn’t appear, the play is obviously in trouble. And if it does, can we really believe it? The only certainty is that if we ask too many questions the subject  of our observation is likely to disappear,” in order to reappear again later for more questioning (Blau 2004: 255). Niall Lucy very eloquently makes the point: the Hamletic ghost of the stage will always remain “someone as someone other”; his very presence “will always vex the metaphysics of presence, will always put into question any grounds for deciding definitively between the actual and its outsides” (Lucy 1997: 145).

Who is there? The terror of the gaze
Having said this, let me turn to another ghost that “haunts” the theatre house and affects the job of the reviewer: the onlookers. What theatre is, and what one feels and thinks it is, depends on who does the looking. This means that the job of the reviewer or critic[1] is to look at a production from the point of view of a hypothetical audience. Within, say, 600 or 700 words, we are expected to capture the fleeting otherness of our object of observation, the temporal “is-ness” of the event of our criticism, claim its ownership, and convincingly articulate reasons for our specific evaluation of the performance. Which means that we do not write in a vacuum. Whether we like it or not, a reviewer has to operate as a consumer-guide (not reader’s aid),[2] and at the same time document an already exhausted artistic event, judge the degree of its success by discussing aspects of the production (script, acting, lighting etc), provide background information and commentary, offer suggestions for possible changes in the production, instruct potential theatregoers and invite, if necessary, greater support for theatre (Palmer 1988: 143). Depending on the medium that hosts the review and οn the conditions of the performance, the nature of each function may change. One does not write the same way for the Wall Street Journal and Daily Mirror, for television or the radio, for a sophisticated journal or a regional newspaper, for a commercial show or a community happening or a low budget college production with a short run, for a newspaper with limited tirage and a newspaper with a large one, for a newspaper that carries a regular theatre column and  a well-respected culture section and a newspaper with irregular culture and theatre commentary, for a newspaper that monopolizes theatre activities in a city and a newspaper that has to compete against dozens of others to have a share of the market. [3] 

The daemons of the market and the ghost of unemployment
One of the problems with reviewing today is that urban newspapers are mostly run by business people or trusts with no or little respect for deontology (professional ethics). What counts most is power and profit. Their ultimate goal is to sell and they expect their reviewers/critics to be able to sell their “piece” too with pass-to-read journalistic jargon. Like advertising: “You must see this”, “do not miss that”, “stay away from that”. Fast food. Fast forward. SMS style. A kind of writing that cultivates a particular ideology of reading that reduces people to mere consumers. With the exception of large newspapers which hire experienced theatre specialists just to write reviews, most other newspapers either turn to unemployed or inexperienced young critics whom they usually do not pay (on the grounds that they give them a legitimate forum to make their presence felt) or turn to their own permanent staff to do the job. The latter are asked to write, besides reviews, many other things including stories on upcoming productions, interviews, background features on specific stars. What transpires from their reports is their fondness for theatre, at best supplemented by a lot of on-the-job training and improvisation (Palmer 1988: 2).
Yet, this is not the whole story. In such an environment, there is so much pressure, insecurity and antagonism, leaving little room for deviance. Everybody feels vulnerable and expendable, especially, younger critics, who look readier to execute assignments that they are given instead of pausing to test one course and its outlook against another. They seem (or have) to downplay the importance of comparison, of analysis and evaluation, the importance of criticism as a counterforce, a form of intellectual resistance and cultural change. As Merod observes, in his study on the political responsibility of the critic, “to write criticism today, much as always, is to follow fairly worn paths of critical respectability […] no real thought about the place of scholarship and criticism in capitalist culture”. This kind of attitude comes to endorse the paradoxical idea that says, criticism is necessary (as a “civilizing inlfluence”) but useless (as a practical tool) (1987: 5), a total reversal of what I thought when I first entered this line of work.

The ghost of disillusionment
Like most newcomers to the scene, with a dim sense of the ways of the world, “of the historical, political and cultural complications that surround and in fact situate [plays and] texts in a world of people and institutions” (Merod 1987: 10), I felt that theatre criticism still had some impact, some power. And probably it did. The fact that there was an identifiable audience out there willing to listen, an audience that belonged to a national group that carried attributes, symbols, aspirations, passions and values that described the defining content of group identity made the task of writing somewhat easier, in the sense of being more focused and, in a way, more influential (Kruger 1992). Now, some 25 years later, many things have changed beyond recognition. Critics not only wonder who is on stage (Hamlet’s ghost) but also who is out there. Who is the potential reader of their review and what does s/he expect to read? Identities are different. The very ontology of the genre is different. Taste is different. And so are expectations and ideologies. The nomadic subjects of our times, no longer able to find long-term abodes in social or institutional settings, join virtual communities on line. They increasingly identify with abstract or distant symbols of “conviviality” offered by electronic culture. Social practices shift further and further from public to privatized, home-centered activities. People spend more time in front of a computer screen and less in face-to-face contact with other human beings or in attending theatre (see also Klaic 2008: 226-27).
My main concern, in other words, has nothing to do with the variety and confusion of interpretive positions so much as with the fact that theatre reviewing, local or global, no longer seems to have the primacy and the weight it once did. It is outweighted by the new business ethos that dominates the Press industry --gossip columns, free press lifestyle jargon, general culture commentary; it is superseded by weblogs and other technology inspired interventions.[4] In most newspapers, paid ads, interviews and profiles of stars do the job of reviewing. The culture industry responds to the individuals’ search for new objects of identification by offering a plethora of new sites of consumption, information, interaction and entertainment to the point of drastically disempowering the impact of traditional reviewing (see also Klaic 2008: 226-27). [5] Even professional artists seem to be less and less eager to find out what serious critics have to say. They have more than enough from easy-to-read free press reports, public relations  and other sources to promote their work.[6]

Triple task
In the midst of a rapidly developing multicultural and electronic era, I feel that we are in need of a critical discourse to enable us a) to confront and explain a racially, religiously and culturally more fragmented and hard to define reality, that has fervently embraced the prefix “re” to mark its desire to “reconfigure, reinscribe, resignify the law (cultural, social, linguistic, dramatic)” (Diamond 2000: 31) and b) to also confront and survive a free-market capitalism that has brought a radical cultural shift that inevitably has had its knock-on effect on theatre in general and theatre criticism in particular and, finally, c) to attract the attention of a postmodern viewer who can  very easily get all the information s/he needs via an electronic route rather through a traditional review. This constitutes a triple task that requires a clear vision of the critic’s relationship to and responsibilities within the corporate structures of national and international life as well as an adequate tool to de-construct both the dramatic re-creations of the world and the endlessly re-created world itself, in other words, the politics and poetics of representation.

Playing with fragments
Earlier theories of theatre and characterization were all dependent upon the paradigmatic dichotomy of appearance and reality and their narratives were always apocalyptic, in the sense that “they moved from mystification to enlightenment and revelation” (Docherty 1996: 63). In the last three or four decades, the changes that have occurred have widened the field inviting the critic to also widen his or her understanding by reshuffling all his past knowledge of drama and the world. He is asked to see that there is “nothing transparent” out there that can be taken for granted (de Man 1986: 15). Most works offer fragments of character and plot instead of fully coherent constructions of an identifiable and apocalyptic whole. In their own way, they reverse all prior trajectories of meaning, order and characterization. From an assumed homogeneity of identity and praxis they have moved towards an endlessly proliferating heterogeneity, whereby stable signs are endlessly deferred. No dramatic (or literary) text can be exhausted by any act of reading or reviewing, simply because there is no end to the contexts in which critical relations can occur. Some readings/reviews may look more convincing than others, but never so convincing that nothing remains to be said (Lucy 1997: 110).
By this I do not mean that there is some peculiar quality or essence that belongs to theatre, which denies the possibility of the “last word” on its value. What I mean is that every word and every body must have a context. And the performance must be viewed in context. There is no outside-context. And a reviewer must think of theatre in its totality and not reduced to pure essences (linguistic, stylistic etc). He must think of the possibility of constant resignification, the same way that he must think of his position in the world.

The critic, the self and the world
In this ghost-ridden world of temporalities and shifting identities, we, as critics, should not feel either “alien”, as Matthew Arnold argues or “exiled”, according to Edward Said. Dazzled, yes, but not homeless; let alone, useless. Such homelessness and uselessness do not become the reviewer. We are of this mazed and amazing world and our major challenge is to give back to our profession at least part of its lost social significance and status. And one of the ways to achieve that, Merod suggests, is by showing that criticism “is about questioning, the risks of daring to question and the responsibilities of those who question” (1987: xi, 188). But before we judge others we first question ourselves, for we are also part of society’s economic logic. We have to ask how we are positioned within this global culture and how we are used, how our work is used and how we lend ourselves to those uses. That is, we have to address our own participation in culture and its commoditization (1987: 19). Most of us (critics/reviewers) are after a stable career and good working conditions. Once given legitimacy in institutions, Merod argues, many of us find motivation to cross-examine our own authority either absent or faltering. Not much to be done or look ahead to. It is as if we are embarrassed to acknowledge our allegiance to the system of power. Yet these questions persist, Merod notes. They have a force that cannot be ignored, especially by a reviewer who is also a teacher helping students to map a critical approach of their own, to explore institutional conditions, not merely to decode or deconstruct them (1987: 10-15, 19). Students-would-be-critics must be aware of the social world in which dramas are written and shows produced.  They must think that literature is not something distinct from the world, and that criticism is unavoidably interrelated with social and political context, that critical activity, whether it takes the form of a play review, a book review or a longer article, is “the one human force most committed to clarifying the world’s structure in order to change it” (1987: 1). And since reviewing involves individuals in the process of making decisions and of studying how these decisions affect the lives of artists, students, people who pay to see a show, and their way of defining dramatic literature and human nature, it is also, and inevitably so, about ethics, about our choices and the nature of our choices. Which means that it can very easily turn out to be an act of violence if not handled properly (Siebers 1988).

Educating the viewer
Let us not forget that nothing about drama is hardwired into our nervous system; and contemporary audiences may be more cosmopolitan but theatrewise they still need tutoring. And one of our tasks as critics, especially traveling critics, is to help re-educate the new audiences, enrich their horizon of expectations, teach them how to appreciate world theatre and through theatre appreciate not only cultural difference but also communality.  We have to develop a more nomadic and appealing critical discourse in order to show them that good theatre is still a place for the unexpected, a place where miracles can happen; that good theatre, no matter where it comes from, can help us make better sense of our lives. Yet to reach those people, our own people and the “other”, we have to share a language with them, which means participating in a complex set of mutual expectations and understandings and at the same time being a step ahead, being in a position to raise more questions, provide  more information, links and insights that no other available source at the moment can do.
Through our critical writings we can help promote the idea of a more tolerant international community, which means that we can transfer the feelings of loyalty to communities to broader groups as a way to reduce conflict among groups and as a way to expand the sense of obligation to help compatriots. Crossing borders of any kind should by no means mean erasing difference. The absence of nationalist impulses may reinforce objective criticism, but the absence of the local definitely weakens discourse. I do not believe in disembodied criticism just as I do not believe in normalizing universality. To be useful at all, we, as critics, must help fight provincialism (of all sorts) by fostering a healthier communication and a more honest dialogue among different people. And this dialogue requires deep understanding of the contexts of construction but also reflection on how playwrights, artists and the productions we watch around the world seek to negotiate these contexts.  I certainly do not imply here that we can change the world or overcome the commercialization of culture, but at least we can help expand the aesthetic and intellectual boundaries of people a little; we can show them that we are connected to the earth as well and not to “a” place on it. That we are connected to all sorts of places and their theatres. Even if we do not want to accept the old cosmopolitan ideal of transcending the distinction between strangers and friends, we all still depend on what Tennessee Williams’ Blanche DuBois calls in the Streetcar Named Desire, the “kindness of strangers” as much as we depend on the kindness of our own (Robbins 1998: 3).

A conclusion against macdonaldization
I am not in favour of criticism (local or international) that argues in black and white. Nor am I in favour of any debate that converts even the minimal difference into an antithesis. We cannot be at odds with everything. Nor can we denationalize everything in the name of a global and still very hazy supra democracy. To have a good international democracy requires a solid and healthy local democracy. In the same sense, to have a good global theater one needs the local to provide the foundations and make the difference. Theatre should not operate like a multinational corporation that disperses more or less identical goods to every corner of the globe where they can be sold in virtually identical theatre (shopping) malls and department stores. Theatre is not MacDonald’s or a credit card that participates in the same revelry of consumption following identical trends and fashions. Of course we expect theatre, whether in writing, theory or practice, to help towards the direction of a better understanding of people, but definitely not towards a homogenized global consumer society that shapes the intercultural tastes of citizens around the world and contributes to the disintegration of local culture. Being embedded as it is, in processes, in institutions, in structures and in markets located within national sovereign territories, theatre (criticism) can negotiate its skills and insights in the international market, but not at the expense of its distinct features of origin. Which means that it can be partly unhomellike but definitely not homeless.
To conclude: our job as reviewers chasing Hamlet’s ghost, is to balance between particularities of places, characters, faces, aesthetics, presences and ideologies and macro-interdependencies. It is our responsibility to transfer in a constructive way the otherness of the international collective to the national collective (and vice versa) without sacrificing the one for the sake of the other (Ree 1998: 77-90, Rorty 1998: 1-19).



BIBLIOGRAPHY

Blau, Herbert. The Audience. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UP, 1990.
Diamond, Elin. “Blau, Butler, Beckett, and the Politics of Seeming.” The Drama Review 44. 4 (2000): 31-43.
De Man, Paul. The Resistance to Theory: Theory and History of Literature, 33. Manchester: Manchester UP, 1986
Docherty, Thomas. Alterities: Criticism, History, Representation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.
Klaic, Dragan. National Theatres Undermined the Withering of the Nation-State. National Theatres in a Changing Europe. Ed. S. E.Wilmer. London, Palgrave, 2008. 217-27.
Kruger, Loren. The National Stage:Theatre and Cultural Legitimation in England, France, and  America. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1992.
Lucy, Niall. Postmodern Literary Theory: an Introduction. London: Blackwell Publishers, 1997.
Merod, Jim. The Political Responsibility of the Critic. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1987.
Palmer, Richard H. The Critics’ Canon: Standards of Theatrical Reviewing in America. New York: Greenwood P, 1988.
Ree, Jonathan. “Cosmopolitanism and the Experience of Nationalism.”  In: Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling Beyond the Nation. Ed. Pheng Chean & Bruce Robbins. Minneapolis: U of Minnessota P, 1998. 77-90.
Robbins, Bruce. “Actually Existing Cosmopolitanism.” In: Cosmopolitics: Thinking and Feeling Beyond the Nation. Ed. Pheng Chean & Bruce Robbins. Minneapolis: U of Minnessota P, 1998. 1-19.
Rorty, Richard. “Justice as a Larger Loyalty.” Thinking and Feeling Beyond the Nation. Ed. Pheng Chean & Bruce Robbins. Minneapolis: U of Minnessota P, 1998. 45-58.
Siebers, Tobin. The Ethics of Criticism. Ithaca: Cornell, UP, 1988.





[1] Although the  terms “reviewer” and “critic” are used interchangeably here, there are important  differences that separate them. As Palmer well notes in his book on American criticism, the difference between review and criticism “parallels  the contrast between a news and a feature story, the first is controlled more by considerations of reportage, the second more by the need for indepth coverage” (1988: 1).
[2] By relating theatre-going to other forms of “shopping” I do not mean to be insulting, of course. Attending theatre is an expensive form of entertainment. Which means that people, before they “buy a show” consult other people (or sources) to ensure that the product merits the costs. And the reviewer is one (and for sure not the first) of their possible consumer guides.
[3] It goes without saying that wherever there is a big number of newspapers to cover a production, the impact of each review is much less. For example, in Athens, Greece, a city of close to four million people, there are at this moment well over thirty daily and weekly publications that cover theatre productions, yet with the exception of only one, none of them has any real impact on the box office.  In  New York, on the other hand, things are very different. After the 1960s many newspapers folded and the city was left with only a few; as a result, Palmer notes (1988), the remaining theatre critics/reviewers carried much more weight and power than before, to the point of closing down productions they did not like. Their word outranked that of any playwright, producer or star. Today success on Broadway still depends on pleasing one individual, the critic of New York Times, producer Thelma Holt admits; “it is only the NYT that has any influence”(http://entertainment.timsoonline.co.uk).

[4] A recent gallop published in a Greek newspaper (Eleftherotypia 3/5/2009) has shown that 64.3% of those who plan their evening entertainment (which includes theatre as well) first consult friends and relatives. A second source of information is the commercials on television or the posters on the streets. In third place one finds newspapers, journals and the internet.
[5] Twenty five years ago, I would never have guessed that theatre would be assessed by visual symbols or ratings. Today it is common practice. The most influential publication in Greece now is an Athenian weekly magazine called Athenorama that provides a panoramic view of what is going on among the city’s approximately 500 annual productions, and ranks performances from 0 to 5 (like evaluating hotel facilities). At the end of each season, readers can vote (with coupons offered by the magazine) on the best performance of the season, the best leading male or female actress etc. It suffices to say that the prizes offered by the particular magazine have by far surpassed in terms of popularity the prizes offered by the Association of Greek Theatre Critics.
[6] As a member on the Board of Greece’s State-funding committee I see that every year we find in the application files submitted for evaluation more reviews from bloggers and personal websites than from traditional sites, like a serious newspaper.


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